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Home  ›  Is There Homosexuality In The Animal Kingdom

Is There Homosexuality In The Animal Kingdom

Written By Sunday, May 29, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Sexual behavior amidst non-human species that is interpreted equally homosexual

Various not-human animal species exhibit beliefs that tin be interpreted as homosexual or bisexual. This may include same-sex sexual activity, courtship, affection, pair bonding, and parenting amidst aforementioned-sexual practice animal pairs.[1] [ii] [3] Various forms of this are establish in every major geographic region and every major creature group. The sexual beliefs of non-human animals takes many different forms, fifty-fifty inside the same species, though homosexual beliefs is best known from social species.

Scientists perceive homosexual beliefs in animals to different degrees. According to Bruce Bagemihl, aforementioned-sexual activity beliefs (comprising courting, sexual, pair-bonding, and parental activities) has been documented in over 450 species of animals worldwide.[iv] Although same-sex interactions involving genital contact have been reported in hundreds of animal species, they are routinely manifested in only a few, including humans.[v] Simon LeVay stated that "[a]lthough homosexual behavior is very mutual in the animal world, it seems to be very uncommon that individual animals have a long-lasting predisposition to engage in such behavior to the exclusion of heterosexual activities. Thus, a homosexual orientation, if one can speak of such thing in animals, seems to be a rarity."[half-dozen] The motivations for and implications of these behaviors accept nonetheless to be fully understood.[ commendation needed ] Bagemihl notes that any hypothesis is "necessarily an business relationship of human interpretations of these phenomena".[7]

Ane species in which sectional homosexual orientation occurs is the domesticated sheep (Ovis aries).[8] [9] "About ten% of rams (males), refuse to mate with ewes (females) but do readily mate with other rams."[nine]

In relation to humans

Applying the term homosexual to animals

The term homosexual was coined by the Hungarian writer and campaigner Karl Maria Kertbeny in 1868 to draw same-sex sexual attraction and sexual behavior in humans.[10] Its use in animal studies has been controversial for two chief reasons: animal sexuality and motivating factors take been and remain poorly understood, and the term has strong cultural implications in western society that are irrelevant for species other than humans.[11] Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. According to Bruce Bagemihl, when describing animals, the term homosexual is preferred over gay, lesbian, and other terms currently in use, as these are seen as fifty-fifty more jump to human homosexuality.[12]

Bailey et al. says:[3]

Homosexual: in animals, this has been used to refer to same-sex behavior that is non sexual in grapheme (e.k. 'homosexual tandem running' in termites), same-sex courtship or copulatory behavior occurring over a short period of time (e.g. 'homosexual mounting' in cockroaches and rams) or long-term pair bonds between same-sex partners that might involve any combination of courting, copulating, parenting and affectional behaviors (e.g. 'homosexual pair bonds' in gulls). In humans, the term is used to depict individual sexual behaviors as well as long-term relationships, but in some usages connotes a gay or lesbian social identity. Scientific writing would benefit from reserving this anthropomorphic term for humans and not using it to describe behavior in other animals, considering of its deeply rooted context in human society.

Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. In wild animals, researchers volition every bit a rule not be able to map the unabridged life of an individual, and must infer from frequency of single observations of beliefs. The correct usage of the term homosexual is that an fauna exhibits homosexual behavior or even same-sex sexual behavior; even so, this article conforms to the usage by mod inquiry,[12] [xiii] [14] [15] [ page needed ] [16] applying the term homosexuality to all sexual behavior (copulation, genital stimulation, mating games and sexual display behavior) betwixt animals of the same sexual practice. In most instances, it is presumed that the homosexual behavior is just function of the animal'southward overall sexual behavioral repertoire, making the animal "bisexual" rather than "homosexual" as the terms are usually understood in humans.[15] [ page needed ]

Nature

The observation of homosexual behavior in animals can be seen as both an argument for and against the credence of homosexuality in humans, and has been used especially against the merits that it is a peccatum contra naturam ("sin confronting nature"). For instance, homosexuality in animals was cited past the American Psychiatric Association and other groups in their amici curiae cursory to the United states Supreme Court in Lawrence v. Texas, which ultimately struck downward the sodomy laws of 14 states.[17] [eighteen]

Enquiry

A bulk of the enquiry available concerning homosexual behavior in animals lacks specification between animals that exclusively exhibit same-sex tendencies and those that participate in heterosexual and homosexual mating activities interchangeably. This lack of distinction has led to differing opinions and conflicting interpretations of collected data amidst scientists and researchers. For case, Bruce Bagemihl, author of the volume Biological Exuberence: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, emphasizes that at that place are no anatomical or endocrinological differences between exclusively homosexual and exclusively heterosexual animal pairs.[19] [ folio needed ] Nonetheless, if the definition of "homosexual behavior" is fabricated to include animals that participate in both same-sex and opposite-sex mating activities, hormonal differences have been documented among key sexual practice hormones, such equally testosterone and estradiol, when compared to those who participate solely in heterosexual mating.[20]

Many of the animals used in laboratory-based studies of homosexuality practise not appear to spontaneously exhibit these tendencies often in the wild. Such behavior is often elicited and exaggerated by the researcher during experimentation through the destruction of a portion of encephalon tissue, or by exposing the fauna to high levels of steroid hormones prenatally.[21] [ page needed ] Data gathered from these studies is limited when applied to spontaneously occurring aforementioned-sex behavior in animals exterior of the laboratory.[21]

Homosexual behaviour in animals has been discussed since classical artifact. The primeval written mention of creature homosexuality appears to engagement dorsum to 2,300 years agone, when Aristotle (384–322 BC) described copulation between pigeons, partridges and quails of the aforementioned sex.[22] The Hieroglyphics of Horapollo, written in the 4th century AD by the Egyptian writer Horapollo, mentions "hermaphroditism" in hyenas and homosexuality in partridges.[22] The offset review of animal homosexuality was written by the zoologist Ferdinand Karsch-Haack in 1900.[22]

Until recent times[ when? ], the presence of same-sex sexual beliefs was non "officially" observed on a large scale, maybe due to observer bias caused past social attitudes to same-sex sexual behavior,[23] innocent confusion, lack of interest, distaste, scientists fearing loss of their grants or fifty-fifty from a fear of "existence ridiculed by their colleagues".[24] [25] Georgetown University biologist Janet Isle of mann states "Scientists who report the topic are ofttimes accused of trying to forwards an agenda, and their piece of work can come under greater scrutiny than that of their colleagues who study other topics."[26] They too noted "Not every sexual human action has a reproductive function ... that's true of humans and non-humans."[26] Studies take demonstrated homosexual behavior in a number of species, but the true extent of homosexuality in animals is not known.

Some researchers believe this behavior to have its origin in male person social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in prison sexuality. Others, peculiarly Bagemihl, Joan Roughgarden, Thierry Lodé[27] and Paul Vasey advise the social office of sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) is not necessarily continued to potency, but serves to strengthen alliances and social ties inside a flock. While reports on many such mating scenarios are withal merely anecdotal, a growing body of scientific piece of work confirms that permanent homosexuality occurs not merely in species with permanent pair bonds,[16] just also in non-monogamous species like sheep. 1 study on sheep constitute that viii% of rams exhibited homosexual preferences—that is, even when given a choice, they chose male over female partners.[28] In fact, apparent homosexual individuals are known from all of the traditional domestic species, from sheep, cattle and horses to cats, dogs and budgerigars.[29] [ folio needed ]

Ground

Sexual behaviors often require a meaning energy investment. When sexual behaviors produce offspring, there is an obvious benefit for the animal. Yet, the do good from performing homosexual behaviors (which cannot upshot in the production of offspring) is less obvious, and some scientists have called it a "Darwinian paradox" because it is not-reproductive. A number of not-exclusive dissimilar explanations for the emergence of such traits have been put forward.[30]

Physiological basis

A definite physiological explanation or reason for homosexual activity in animal species has not been agreed upon past researchers in the field. Numerous scholars are of the opinion that varying levels (either higher or lower) of the sexual practice hormones in the animal,[31] in addition to the size of the brute's gonads,[20] play a direct role in the sexual behavior and preference exhibited past that animal. Others firmly fence no show to back up these claims exists when comparing animals of a specific species exhibiting homosexual behavior exclusively and those that do not. Ultimately, empirical support from comprehensive endocrinological studies exist for both interpretations.[31] [21] Researchers found no prove of differences in the measurements of the gonads, or the levels of the sex hormones of exclusively homosexual western gulls and ring-billed gulls.[32]

Additional studies pertaining to hormone involvement in homosexual behavior signal that when administering treatments of testosterone and estradiol to female heterosexual animals, the elevated hormone levels increase the likelihood of homosexual behavior. Additionally, boosting the levels of sex activity hormones during an animal's pregnancy appears to increase the likelihood of it birthing a homosexual offspring.[31]

Genetic footing

Researchers found that disabling the fucose mutarotase (FucM) gene in laboratory mice – which influences the levels of estrogen to which the brain is exposed – caused the female person mice to bear equally if they were male as they grew upwardly. "The mutant female mouse underwent a slightly altered developmental program in the brain to resemble the male brain in terms of sexual preference" said Professor Chankyu Park of the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Engineering science in Daejon, Republic of korea, who led the research. His findings were published in the BMC Genetics periodical on July 7, 2010.[33] [34] Some other study found that past manipulating a gene in fruit flies (Drosophila), homosexual behavior appeared to take been induced. However, in add-on to homosexual beliefs, several abnormal behaviors were besides exhibited apparently due to this mutation.[35]

Neurobiological basis

In March 2011, research showed that serotonin is involved in the mechanism of sexual orientation of mice.[36] [37] A written report conducted on fruit flies plant that inhibiting the dopamine neurotransmitter inhibited lab-induced homosexual behavior.[38]

Other hypotheses

One proposal for the adaptive function of homosexual behavior is the formation of alliances and mutual social benefit to the animals. Studies support this in specific species, such as black swans, where a quarter of mate pairs consist of ii males, who mate with a female person and chase her away once she lays the egg, then enhance it themselves. These K-Thou pairs accept bully success in defending their territory and resources, and keep their young live until fledgling 80% of the time, compared to 30% for Thousand-F pairs.[39]

Studies done on homosexual behavior in birds showed a negative correlation between relative parental investment and F-F homosexual behaviors, i.e. females that invested more time and care into their young relative to males had less homosexual encounters. Similarly, there was a negative correlation between relative parental investment and One thousand-Yard homosexual behaviors. This meant that species exhibiting a high degree of polygamy (where females frequently are the sectional caretakers of the young) F-F sexual behaviors were very rare, whereas in a socially monogamous species (in which a M-F pair works together to care for immature) they were much more common. The trend was opposite for males, in polygamous species One thousand-Chiliad sexual behaviors were quite common and in socially monogamous species they were rare. The report argues that release from parental intendance, a very energy intensive investment, allows the opportunities for homosexual behaviors to be exhibited, and college parental care prevents homosexual behaviors from occurring because of the free energy cost of the behaviors.[40]

A 2019 paper hypothesized that when sex outset began to evolve, there was no distinction betwixt homosexuality and heterosexuality, and animals mated with other members of their species indiscriminately. This is a contrast to nigh perspectives, which try to find explanations for the development of homosexual behaviors and divide it completely from the development of heterosexual behaviors. The report states that it is unlikely that sexual behaviors evolved simultaneously to the evolution of traits necessary to recognize a compatible sexual mate, such every bit size, shape, odor, and colour. As those secondary sex characteristics evolved, sexuality would take become more discriminatory, leading to less homosexuality, but homosexual behaviors would rarely take had enough cost to be selected confronting and removed entirely from a population. Additionally, the price of homosexual behavior would be beginning by the cost of mate recognition, which requires psychological adaptations, and excessive discrimination in mate choice tin lead to missing out of mating opportunities. With indiscriminate mating, these factors are irrelevant. The paper notes that in some species, peculiarly where survival is very hard and each free energy-related decision could mean the brute'southward decease, homosexual behavior would be strongly selected confronting, leading strictly heterosexual species.[41]

Some select species and groups

Birds

Black swans

An estimated ane-quarter of all blackness swan pairings are of males. They steal nests, or grade temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female person after she lays the eggs. The males spent time in each other's guild, guarded the common territory, performed greeting ceremonies before each other, and (in the reproductive flow) pre-marital rituals, and if 1 of the birds tried to sit on the other, an intense fight began.[ane] [2] More of their cygnets survive to machismo than those of different-sex pairs, possibly due to their superior ability to defend large portions of state. The same reasoning has been applied to male flamingo pairs raising chicks.[42] [43]

Albatrosses

Female Laysan albatrosses, on the north-western tip of the island of Oahu, Hawaii, class pairs for co-growing offspring. On the observed island, the number of females considerably exceeds the number of males (59% Northward=102/172), so 31% of females, after mating with males, create partnerships for hatching and feeding chicks. Compared to male-female couples, female partnerships have a lower hatching rate (41% vs 87%) and lower overall reproductive success (31% vs. 67%).[44]

Warming waters from climate change have led to increased foraging times and thus increased bloodshed among female black-browed albatrosses on the Antipodes Islands in New Zealand. The skewed gender imbalance has led to many male albatrosses forming homosexual relationships. Male-male person pairs now comprise between 2 - 5% of the albatross population on the islands.[45] [46]

Blue ducks

In 2009, a U.k.-based captive breeding program for blue ducks (involving two males and one female) was batty when the 2 males paired with each other instead of with the female person that they were assigned to mate with.[47]

Ibises

Enquiry has shown that the environmental pollutant methylmercury can increase the prevalence of homosexual beliefs in male person American white ibis. The study involved exposing chicks in varying dosages to the chemical and measuring the degree of homosexual behavior in machismo. The results discovered was that as the dosage was increased the likelihood of homosexual behavior also increased. The endocrine blocking feature of mercury has been suggested equally a possible cause of sexual disruption in other bird species.[48] [49]

Mallards

Mallards grade male-female pairs merely until the female lays eggs, at which time the male person leaves the female person. Mallards take rates of male-male sexual practice that are unusually high for birds, in some cases, every bit loftier as 19% of all pairs in a population.[29] [ page needed ] Kees Moeliker of the Natural History Museum Rotterdam has observed one male person mallard appoint in homosexual necrophilia.[50]

Penguins

Penguins have been observed to engage in homosexual behaviour since at least as early as 1911. George Murray Levick, who documented this behaviour in Adélie penguins at Cape Adare, described it as "depraved". The report was considered too shocking for public release at the time, and was suppressed. The only copies that were fabricated bachelor privately to researchers had the English text partly written in Greek letters, to prevent this knowledge becoming more than widely known. The written report was unearthed only a century later, and published in Polar Record in June 2012.[51] [52]

In early Feb 2004, The New York Times reported that Roy and Silo, a male pair of chinstrap penguins in the Cardinal Park Zoo in New York Metropolis, had successfully hatched and fostered a female chick from a fertile egg they had been given to incubate.[17] Other penguins in New York zoos take also been reported to accept formed same-sexual activity pairs.[53] [54]

In Odense Zoo in Denmark, a pair of male person king penguins adopted an egg that had been abandoned by a female person, proceeding to incubate it and raise the chick.[55] [56] Zoos in Japan and Federal republic of germany have too documented homosexual male person penguin couples.[57] [58] The couples take been shown to build nests together and utilize a stone equally a substitute for an egg. Researchers at Rikkyo University in Tokyo found 20 homosexual pairs at xvi major aquariums and zoos in Japan.

The Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany attempted to encourage reproduction of endangered Humboldt penguins by importing females from Sweden and separating iii male pairs, but this was unsuccessful. The zoo's manager said that the relationships were "too strong" betwixt the homosexual pairs.[59] German gay groups protested at this endeavour to break upward the male-male pairs[sixty] but the zoo's director was reported as maxim "Nosotros don't know whether the three male pairs are actually homosexual or whether they have just bonded because of a shortage of females ... nobody here wants to forcibly divide homosexual couples."[61]

A pair of male person Magellanic penguins who had shared a burrow for six years at the San Francisco Zoo and raised a surrogate chick, carve up when the male of a pair in the next burrow died and the female sought a new mate.[62]

Buddy and Pedro, a pair of male African penguins, were separated by the Toronto Zoo to mate with female penguins.[63] [64] Buddy has since paired off with a female person.[64]

Suki and Chupchikoni are two female African penguins that pair bonded at the Ramat Gan Safari in Israel. Chupchikoni was causeless to be male until her claret was tested.[65]

In 2014 Jumbs and Hurricane, two Humboldt penguins at Wingham Wild animals Park became the center of international media attention as two male penguins who had pair bonded a number of years earlier then successfully hatched and reared an egg given to them as surrogate parents after the female parent abandoned it halfway through incubation.[66]

As of 2018, ii female King penguins at Kelly Tarltons in Auckland, New Zealand, called Thelma and Louise (named after the 1991 picture show) have been in a relationship for viii years, when near of the other eligible penguins switch partners each mating flavor, regardless of their orientation. The two penguins were both taking intendance of an egg that Thelma hatched, but is unknown whether it was fertilized.[67]

Vultures

In 1998, two male griffon vultures named Dashik and Yehuda, at the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo, engaged in "open and energetic sex activity" and congenital a nest. The keepers provided the couple with an bogus egg, which the 2 parents took turns incubating, and 45 days later on, the zoo replaced the egg with a baby vulture. The two male person vultures raised the chick together.[68] A few years after, yet, Yehuda became interested in a female vulture that was brought into the aviary. Dashik became depressed, and was eventually moved to the zoological research garden at Tel Aviv University where he too ready up a nest with a female vulture.[69]

Two male vultures at the Allwetter Zoo in Muenster built a nest together, although they were picked on and their nest materials were often stolen by other vultures. They were somewhen separated to effort to promote convenance by placing one of them with female vultures, despite the protests of High german homosexual groups.[lxx]

Pigeons

Both male person and female pigeons sometimes exhibit homosexual behavior. In addition to sexual behavior, aforementioned-sex dove pairs volition build nests, and hens will lay (infertile) eggs and attempt to incubate them.[71]

Mammals

Amazon dolphins

The Amazon river dolphin or boto has been reported to form upward in bands of 3–5 individuals engaging in sex activity. The groups usually comprise young males and sometimes one or 2 females. Sex is ofttimes performed in non-reproductive means, using snout, flippers and genital rubbing, without regard to gender.[72] In captivity, they have been observed to sometimes perform homosexual and heterosexual penetration of the blowhole, a hole homologous with the nostril of other mammals, making this the only known example of nasal sexual activity in the animal kingdom.[72] [73] The males will sometimes also perform sex with males from the tucuxi species, a type of minor porpoise.[72]

American bisons

The American bison is a bovine mammal which displays homosexual behavior.

Courtship, mounting, and total anal penetration between bulls has been noted to occur amongst American bison. The Mandan nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season".[74] Also, mounting of 1 female person by another (known as "bulling") is extremely common amongst cattle. The behaviour is hormone driven and synchronizes with the emergence of oestrus (estrus), particularly in the presence of a bull.

Bats

Two male Bonin flying foxes (Pteropus pselaphon) performing fellatio on each other.[75]

More than 20 species of bat accept been documented to engage in homosexual behavior.[22] [75] Bat species that accept been observed engaging in homosexual behavior in the wild include:[22]

  • the grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus)
  • the Bonin flight play a trick on (Pteropus pselaphon)[75]
  • the Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus)
  • Rafinesque's big-eared bat (Corynorhinus rafinesquii)
  • the common bent-fly bat (Miniopterus schreibersii)
  • the serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus)
  • Bechstein's bat (Myotis bechsteinii)
  • the long-fingered bat (Myotis capaccinii)
  • Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii)
  • the little chocolate-brown bat (Myotis lucifugus)
  • the greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis)
  • the whiskered bat (Myotis mystacinus)
  • Natterer's bat (Myotis nattereri)
  • the mutual noctule (Nyctalus noctula)
  • Leisler's bat (Nyctalus leisleri)
  • the common pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus)
  • the chocolate-brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus)
  • the barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus)
  • the greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum)
  • the lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros)

Bat species that have been observed engaging in homosexual behavior in captivity include the Comoro flying fob (Pteropus livingstonii), the Rodrigues flight fox (Pteropus rodricensis) and the mutual vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus).[22]

Homosexual behavior in bats has been categorized into vi groups: mutual homosexual preparation and licking, homosexual masturbation, homosexual play, homosexual mounting, coercive sex activity, and cross-species homosexual sexual activity.[22] [75]

In the wild, the grayness-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) engages in allogrooming wherein one partner licks and gently bites the chest and fly membrane of the other partner. Both sexes display this form of mutual homosexual preparation and information technology is more mutual in males. Males oft have erect penises while they are mutually grooming each other. Similar opposite-sexual practice grooming partners, aforementioned-sex activity grooming partners continuously utter a "pre-copulation telephone call", which is described equally a "pulsed grating telephone call", while engaged in this activity.[22] [75]

In wild Bonin flying foxes (Pteropus pselaphon), males perform fellatio or 'male-male person genital licking' on other males. Male person–male genital licking events occur repeatedly several times in the aforementioned pair, and reciprocal genital licking too occurs. The male-male person genital licking in these bats is considered a sexual behavior. Allogrooming in Bonin flight foxes has never been observed, hence the male-male person genital licking in this species does not seem to exist a byproduct of allogrooming, only rather a behavior of directly licking the male person genital area, independent of allogrooming.[75] In captivity, same-sex genital licking has been observed among males of the Comoro flying flim-flam (Pteropus livingstonii) too as among males of the mutual vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus).[22] [75]

In wild Indian flying foxes (Pteropus giganteus), males oftentimes mount one another, with erections and thrusting, while play-wrestling.[22] Males of the long-fingered bat (Myotis capaccinii) take been observed in the same position of male person-female mounting, with ane gripping the back of the other'south fur. A like beliefs was as well observed in the common bent-wing bat (Miniopterus schreibersii).[22]

In wild niggling brown bats (Myotis lucifugus), males often mount other males (and females) during late autumn and winter, when many of the mounted individuals are torpid.[22] 35% of matings during this catamenia are homosexual.[76] These coercive copulations usually include ejaculation and the mounted bat oftentimes makes a typical copulation telephone call consisting of a long squawk.[22] Similarly, in hibernacula of the common noctule (Nyctalus noctula), agile males were observed to wake up from lethargy on a warm day and appoint in mating with lethargic males and (active or lethargic) females. The lethargic males, similar females, called out loudly and presented their buccal glands with opened oral cavity during copulation.[22]

Vesey-Fitzgerald (1949) observed homosexual behaviours in all 12 British bat species known at the time: "Homosexuality is common in the bound in all species, and, since the males are in full possession of their powers, I suspect throughout the summertime...I have even seen homosexuality between Natterer's and Daubenton's bats (Myotis nattereri and Thousand. daubentonii)."[22]

Bottlenose dolphins

Dolphins of several species engage in homosexual acts, though information technology is best studied in the bottlenose dolphins.[29] [ page needed ] Sexual encounters between females accept the shape of "beak-genital propulsion", where one female inserts her pecker in the genital opening of the other while swimming gently forrad.[77] Between males, homosexual behaviour includes rubbing of genitals confronting each other, which sometimes leads to the males swimming belly to belly, inserting the penis in the other'southward genital slit and sometimes anus.[78]

Janet Mann, Georgetown Academy professor of biology and psychology, argues that the potent personal behavior amongst male dolphin calves is well-nigh bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context.[79] She cites studies showing that these dolphins afterwards in life as adults are in a sense bisexual, and the male bonds forged earlier in life piece of work together for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with. Confrontations between flocks of bottlenose dolphins and the related species Atlantic spotted dolphin will sometimes lead to cross-species homosexual behaviour between the males rather than combat.[80]

Elephants

African and Asian male elephants will engage in same-sex bonding and mounting. Such encounters are oftentimes associated with affectionate interactions, such as kissing, trunk intertwining, and placing trunks in each other'due south mouths. Male person elephants, who often live autonomously from the general herd, often class "companionships", consisting of an older private and one or sometimes two younger males with sexual beliefs beingness an important part of the social dynamic. Unlike heterosexual relations, which are ever of a fleeting nature, the relationships between males may last for years. The encounters are analogous to heterosexual bouts, i male often extending his trunk along the other'due south back and pushing forward with his tusks to signify his intention to mount. Same-sex relations are common and frequent in both sexes, with Asiatic elephants in captivity devoting roughly 45% of sexual encounters to same-sexual activity.[81]

Giraffes

Male person giraffes have been observed to engage in remarkably high frequencies of homosexual behavior. After aggressive "necking", information technology is common for two male giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions betwixt males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.[82] In 1 report, upwardly to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place betwixt two males. The proportion of same sex activity activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at whatsoever given time one in xx males were engaged in not-combative necking behavior with some other male. Simply ane% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred betwixt females.[83]

Marmots

Olympic marmot (left) and hoary marmot (correct).

Homosexual behavior is quite mutual in wild marmots.[84] In Olympic marmots (Marmota olympus) and hoary marmots (Marmota caligata), females often mount other females as well every bit appoint in other affectionate and sexual behaviors with females of the same species.[84] They display a high frequency of these behaviors especially when they are in heat.[84] [85] A homosexual encounter often begins with a greeting interaction in which one female person nuzzles her nose on the other female's cheek or mouth, or both females touch on noses or mouths. Additionally, a female person may gently chew on the ear or neck of her partner, who responds past raising her tail. The commencement female may sniff the other's genital region or nuzzle that region with her mouth. She may then proceed to mount the other female person, during which the mounting female gently grasps the mounted female's dorsal neck fur in her jaws while thrusting. The mounted female arches her back and holds her tail to one side to facilitate their sexual interaction.[84] [86]

Lions

Both male person and female lions have been seen to interact homosexually.[87] [88] Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. About 8% of mountings take been observed to occur with other males. Pairings between females are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

Polecats

European polecats (Mustela putorius) were found to engage homosexually with non-sibling animals. Exclusive homosexuality with mounting and anal penetration in this solitary species serves no apparent adaptive function.[89] [ page needed ]

Primates

Bonobos

Bonobos form a matriarchal lodge, unusual among apes. They are fully bisexual: both males and females engage in hetero- and homosexual behavior, existence noted for female–female sex in particular,[90] including between juveniles and adults.[91] Roughly sixty% of all bonobo sexual activity occurs between 2 or more females. While the homosexual bonding system in bonobos represents the highest frequency of homosexuality known in any primate species, homosexuality has been reported for all great apes, besides equally a number of other primate species.[92] [93] [94] [95] [96]

Dutch primatologist Frans de Waal, who extensively observed and filmed bonobos, believed that sexual activity is the bonobo's way of avoiding conflict. Anything that arouses the involvement of more than than ane bonobo at a fourth dimension, not simply food, tends to issue in sexual contact. If ii bonobos arroyo a paper-thin box thrown into their enclosure, they volition briefly mount each other before playing with the box. Such situations pb to squabbles in most other species. But bonobos are quite tolerant, perchance because they use sex activity to divert attention and to defuse tension.[91] [97]

Bonobo sex often occurs in aggressive contexts totally unrelated to food. A jealous male person might chase another abroad from a female, afterward which the ii males reunite and engage in scrotal rubbing. Or after a female hits a juvenile, the latter's female parent may lunge at the aggressor, an action that is immediately followed by genital rubbing between the 2 adults.[91]

Gorillas

Homosexual beliefs amongst male gorillas has been studied.[98] This behavior occurs more than often in all-male available packs in the wild and it is believed to play a function in social bonding. Homosexual beliefs among female mountain gorillas has also been documented.[99]

Japanese macaques

With the Japanese macaque, also known as the "snow monkey", same-sex activity relations are frequent, though rates vary between troops. Females will grade "consortships" characterized past affectionate social and sexual activities. In some troops up to one quarter of the females form such bonds, which vary in duration from a few days to a few weeks. Oft, strong and lasting friendships upshot from such pairings. Males also have same-sex relations, typically with multiple partners of the same age. Affectionate and playful activities are associated with such relations.[100]

Orangutans

Homosexual behavior forms part of the natural repertoire of sexual or sociosexual behavior of orangutans. Male person homosexual behavior occurs both in the wild and in captivity, and it occurs in both adolescent and mature individuals. Homosexual beliefs in orangutans is non an artifact of captivity or contact with humans.[101]

Monkeys

Amidst monkeys[ description needed ], Lionel Tiger and Robin Fob conducted a report on how Depo-Provera contraceptives lead to decreased male attraction to females.[102]

Sheep

Ovis aries has attracted much attention due to the fact that around 8–10% of rams accept an exclusive homosexual orientation.[8] [28] [103] [104] [105] [106] Such rams prefer to court and mount other rams just, even in the presence of estrous ewes.[viii] Moreover, around 18–22% of rams are bisexual.[104]

Several observations indicate that male–male sexual preference in rams is sexually motivated. Rams routinely perform the aforementioned courtship behaviors (including foreleg kicks, nudges, vocalizations, anogenital sniffs and flehmen) prior to mounting other males as observed when other rams court and mount estrous females. Furthermore, pelvic thrusting and ejaculation ofttimes accompany aforementioned-sexual activity mounts by rams.[106]

A number of studies have reported differences in brain structure and function between male-oriented and female-oriented rams, suggesting that sexual partner preferences are neurologically hard-wired.[106] A 2003 study by Dr. Charles East. Roselli et al. (Oregon Health and Scientific discipline University), states that homosexuality in male person sheep is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is one-half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.[28] Scientists constitute that, "The oSDN in rams that preferred females was significantly larger and contained more neurons than in male-oriented rams and ewes. In addition, the oSDN of the female-oriented rams expressed higher levels of aromatase, a substance that converts testosterone to estradiol, a form of estrogen which is believed to facilitate typical male person sexual behaviors. Aromatase expression was no different betwixt male-oriented rams and ewes [...] The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN limited cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase mRNA levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "... naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis."[28] As noted before, given the potential unagressiveness of the male person population in question, the differing aromatase levels may also have been evidence of aggression levels, not sexuality. It should also be noted that the results of this particular study have non been confirmed by other studies.

The Merck Manual of Veterinarian Medicine appears to consider homosexuality amid sheep every bit a routine occurrence and an issue to be dealt with equally a problem of animal husbandry.[107]

Studies accept failed to identify whatsoever compelling social factors that tin predict or explain the variations in sexual partner preferences of domestic rams.[106] Homosexual orientation and same-sex mounting in rams is non related to dominance, social rank or competitive ability. Indeed, male-oriented rams are non more or less ascendant than female-oriented rams.[108] [106] Homosexual orientation in rams is too non affected by rearing conditions, i.due east., rearing males in all-male person groups, rearing male and female lambs together, early exposure of boyish males to females and early social experiences with females exercise not promote or prevent homosexual orientation in rams.[108] [106] Male-oriented partner preference also does not announced to be an artifact caused past captivity or human management of sheep.[106]

Homosexual courtship and sexual activeness routinely occur amid rams of wild sheep species, such as bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), thinhorn sheep (Ovis dalli), mouflons and urials (Ovis orientalis).[109] Normally a higher ranking older male courts a younger male using a sequence of stylized movements. To initiate homosexual courting, a courting male approaches the other male with his head and neck lowered and extended far forrad in what is chosen the 'low-stretch' posture. He may combine this with the 'twist,' in which the courting male person sharply rotates his head and points his muzzle toward the other male, frequently while flicking his tongue and making grumbling sounds. The courtship male too often performs a 'foreleg boot', in which he snaps his front leg up confronting the other male's belly or between his hind legs. He also occasionally sniffs and nuzzles the other male's genital surface area and may perform the flehmen response. Thinhorn rams additionally lick the penis of the male they are courting. In response, the male being courted may rub his cheeks and forehead on the courting male's face, nibble and lick him, rub his horns on the courting male's neck, chest, or shoulders, and develop an erection. Males of some other wild sheep species, the Asiatic mouflons, perform similar courtship behaviors towards fellow males.[109]

Sexual activity betwixt wild males typically involves mounting and anal intercourse. In Thinhorn sheep, genital licking also occurs. During mounting, the larger male person usually mounts the smaller male person past rearing upwardly on his hind legs and placing his front legs on his partner's flanks. The mounting male usually has an erect penis and accomplishes full anal penetration while performing pelvic thrusts that may lead to ejaculation. The mounted male arches his back to facilitate the copulation. Homosexual courtship and sex activity can likewise accept place in groups equanimous of 3 to 10 wild rams clustered together in a circle. These not-aggressive groups are chosen 'huddles' and involve rams rubbing, licking, nuzzling, horning, and mounting each other. Female Mountain sheep likewise engage in occasional courtship activities with one another and in sexual activities such as licking each other's genitals and mounting.[109]

Spotted hyenas

The family structure of the spotted hyena is matriarchal, and say-so relationships with strong sexual elements are routinely observed between related females. Due largely to the female spotted hyena's unique urogenital system, which looks more than like a penis rather than a vagina, early naturalists idea hyenas were hermaphroditic males who commonly skilful homosexuality.[110] [ failed verification ] Early on writings such equally Ovid's Metamorphoses and the Physiologus suggested that the hyena continually changed its sex activity and nature from male to female and back over again. In Paedagogus, Clement of Alexandria noted that the hyena (along with the hare) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse". Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution, deviant sexual behavior, and even witchcraft.

The reality backside the confusing reports is the sexually aggressive behavior between the females, including mounting between females. Research has shown that "in dissimilarity to most other female mammals, female Crocuta are male-like in appearance, larger than males, and substantially more aggressive,"[111] and they have "been masculinized without being defeminized".[110] [ failed verification ]

Study of this unique ballocks and ambitious behavior in the female person hyena has led to the understanding that more aggressive females are better able to compete for resource, including nutrient and mating partners.[110] [112] Research has shown that "elevated levels of testosterone in utero"[113] contribute to actress aggressiveness; both males and females mount members of both the same and reverse sex,[113] [114] who in plow are mayhap acting more submissive considering of lower levels of testosterone in utero.[111]

Reptiles

Lizards

Several species of whiptail lizard (especially in the genus Aspidoscelis) consist merely of females that have the power to reproduce through parthenogenesis.[115] Females appoint in sexual behavior to stimulate ovulation, with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in "masculine" sexual roles. Those animals with currently loftier estrogen levels assume "feminine" sexual roles. Some parthenogenetic lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though asexual whiptail lizards populations lack males, sexual stimuli nonetheless increase reproductive success. From an evolutionary standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the l% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of gecko also reproduce by parthenogenesis.[116]

Some species of sexually reproducing geckos have also been found to brandish homosexual behavior, due east.grand. the day geckos Phelsuma laticauda and Phelsuma cepediana.[117]

Tortoises

Jonathan, the globe's oldest tortoise (an Aldabra giant tortoise), had been mating with another tortoise named Frederica since 1991. In 2017, it was discovered that Frederica was actually probably male all along, and was renamed Frederic.[118]

Insects and arachnids

At that place is evidence of same-sex sexual behavior in at least 110 species of insects and arachnids.[119] Scharf et al. says: "Males are more frequently involved in aforementioned-sex sexual (SSS) behavior in the laboratory than in the field, and isolation, high density, and exposure to female pheromones increase its prevalence. SSS behavior is often shorter than the equivalent heterosexual beliefs. Most cases tin be explained via mistaken identification past the active (courtship/mounting) male. Passive males ofttimes resist courtship/mating attempts".[119]

Scharf et al. continues: "SSS behavior has been reported in about insect orders, and Bagemihl (1999) provides a listing of ~100 species of insects demonstrating such behavior. Notwithstanding, this list lacks detailed descriptions, and a more comprehensive summary of its prevalence in invertebrates, every bit well as ethology, causes, implications, and evolution of this behavior, remains defective".[119]

Dragonflies

The caput of darner dragonfly (Basiaeschna janata)

Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of dragonflies (the order Odonata). The cloacal pinchers of male damselflies and dragonflies inflict feature caput damage to females during sex. A survey of 11 species of damsel and dragonflies[120] [121] has revealed such mating damages in 20 to fourscore% of the males too, indicating a adequately high occurrence of sexual coupling betwixt males.

Fruit flies

Male Drosophila melanogaster flies bearing two copies of a mutant allele in the fruitless gene court and effort to mate exclusively with other males.[122] The genetic basis of brute homosexuality has been studied in the fly D. melanogaster.[123] Here, multiple genes have been identified that tin can crusade homosexual courtship and mating.[124] These genes are thought to control behavior through pheromones likewise as altering the structure of the animal'due south brains.[125] [126] These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.[127] [128]

Bed bugs

Male person bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) are sexually attracted to any newly fed individual and this results in homosexual mounting. This occurs in heterosexual mounting by the traumatic insemination in which the male pierces the female abdomen with his needle-like penis. In homosexual mating this risks intestinal injuries equally males lack the female person counteradaptive spermalege structure. Males produce alarm pheromones to reduce such homosexual mating.

See likewise

  • Against Nature?
  • Biology and sexual orientation
  • Cross species sex
  • Freemartin
  • Hermaphroditism in animals
  • Homosexuality and psychology
  • List of animals displaying homosexual behavior
  • Non-human being primate experiments
  • Norms of reaction
  • Sexual orientation
  • Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine
  • Xq28

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External links

  • National Geographic
  • Homosexual Behaviour in Animals An Evolutionary Perspective
  • Driscoll, East. V. (2008), Bisexual Species, Scientific American Mind, 19(3), pp. 68–73.
  • Nature or nurture? Innate social behaviors in the mouse encephalon

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_behavior_in_animals

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